Spanish scientists map underwater volcano

From UPI.com: Spanish scientists map underwater volcano

TENERIFE, Spain, Oct. 28 (UPI) -- Spanish scientists say they've mapped the formation of an underwater volcano that emerged in the waters off the Canary Islands earlier this month.

The volcanic cone off El Hierro Island has reached a height of 300 feet with a lava tongue still flowing down its side, even though its activity has slowed in the past few days, a release from the Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology said Friday.

"This is probably the first time that such a young underwater volcano has been mapped in such high resolution," Juan Acosta of the Spanish Institute of Oceanography said.

Within 15 days of the first signs of eruption on Oct. 9, scientists on the institute's research ship Ramon Margalef completed mapping the seabed and the growing volcano with unprecedented precision, he said.

"It is spectacular to see how what was once an underwater valley is now a volcanic cone with its descending lava tongue," Acosta said.

The base of the volcano lies at a depth of almost 1,000 feet. It is conical, 300 feet high with a base diameter of 2,200 feet and a crater width of 400 feet, the researchers said.

Life on Earth may have started in Greenland volcano

The National Academy of Science used isotypes of zinc to measure the acid levels and thermal fluids of the Isua mud volcanoes in the south west of Greenland

From The Telegraph: Life on Earth may have started in Greenland volcano
Researchers say they have discovered the chemical elements crucial to the formation of life in mud volcanoes at Isua in south-west Greenland.

It was believed life began in underwater geysers - but scientists now argue that these could not have sustained life, and that the volcanoes offered the oldest environment where life could begin.

Amidst the ancient rocks, believed to be some of the oldest on earth, scientist found the vital mineral of serpentinite - which is the crucial ingredient needed to support life.

Serpentinite is formed when sea water breaks through the earth's upper mantle, the mineral allows aminio-acids to stabilise and form organic molecules.

Primitive life was presumed to have first developed in hydrothermal sources under sea mountains.

These geysers which spewed out hydrogen, methane and other gases were thought to produce an environment favourable to life.

But French researches claim these geysers, known as black smokers, were too acidic to allow life building block's aminio-acids to stabilise.

Instead, they argue life was more likely to have started within the volcanoes.

These life-forms formed when the continents barely covered the earth's surface and the planet was awash with seas.

The geological study published in the National Academy of Science used isotypes of zinc to measure the acid levels and thermal fluids of the Isua mud volcanoes.

They found that these minerals formed a favourable environment for amino-acid stabilisation.

Researchers from the Laboratoire de Geologie de Lyon Marie-Laure Pons said: "Mud volancoes at Isua have been identified as a possible birthplace for life on earth.

"Nearly four billion years ago, at a time when the continents only occupied a very small part of the surface area of the globe, the oceanic crust of Isua was permeated by basic hydrothermal fluids, rich in carbonates, and at temperatures ranging from 100 to 300°C.

"Phosphorous, another indispensable element to life, is abundant in environments where serpentinisation takes place.

"As this process generates mud volcanoes, all the necessary conditions were gathered at Isua for organic molecules to form and be stable.

"The mud volcanoes at Isua thus represent a particularly favourable setting for the emergence of primitive terrestrial life."

Indonesia’s Volcano Man Dedicated to the People

From Jakarta Globe: Indonesia’s Volcano Man Dedicated to the People

When Mount Merapi started rumbling last year, Indonesia turned to the country’s preeminent geophysicist and volcanologist for guidance.

The millions of people living on the mountain’s slopes had to depend on Surono to determine whether they should evacuate and how far they should flee.

Even President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono devotedly followed Surono’s updates on what later turned out to be the Merapi’s largest eruption in more than a century.

Born 56 years ago on July 8 to a poor family from Banyumas, Central Java, Surono never thought he would become the preeminent volcanologist in a country that is home to a third of the world’s volcanoes.

Surono had always wanted to be a lecturer, and he pursued that dream by enrolling in the physics department of the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB).

“I didn’t have any money back then, and I was already married,” he said. “I had to support my family by working as a freelance photographer, wandering around everyday offering my services to random people.”

In 1982, while working as a lecture assistant at his alma mater, he was assigned to accompany a geologist from Wisconsin who was conducting research in Mount Kelud, East Java.

After observing how people lived their lives on the slopes of the mountain, he decided volcanoes were his new obsession.

“Instead of teaching those intelligent people in ITB, I decided I would teach these simple mountain people to save their lives,” he said.

He told his superiors that he no longer wanted to be a lecturer and left to join the Volcanology and Geological Disaster Mitigation Agency (PVMBG), which he now heads. He earned his masters degree in 1983 at Grenoble University in Grenoble, France, and got his doctorate in geophysics at Savoei University in Chambery, France, in 1993.

The burden of the job, he said, was sometimes overwhelming and even unbearable. Thousands of people would evacuate and have their lives turned upside down if he told them to do so.

“I’m very stubborn and I will not have my recommendations not followed [by people],” said Surono, who is known to berate reporters who ask him questions without understanding the issues at hand.

For instance, he has frequently been criticized for recommending that people evacuate even when a volcano seems to be nowhere near erupting.

“If I’m wrong and the volcano doesn’t erupt, I don’t mind being fired from my job,” Surono said. “But if I’m right, thousands of people would not be able to save themselves in time.”

Before Mount Kelud erupted in 2007, thousands of anxious evacuees begged him to let them go home after living in refugee camps for three weeks, but he insisted they stay. The mountain eventually did erupt, and the evacuees were spared.

In July, when Mount Lokon in North Sulawesi began showing an increase in volcanic activity, Surono recommended the local government immediately relocate its people. It refused, saying the mountain erupted every year and never killed anybody. In the end there was a serious eruption, and the local government had to scramble to save the residents.

Surono believes there is no such thing as too much caution when dealing with nature, especially in Indonesia, where more than a hundred volcanoes are active.

“The only certain thing about nature is the uncertainty,” he said. “Even the most cutting-edge equipment wasn’t made to defeat nature. Technology only helps to read it better.”

Surono’s team must consider every single detail before deciding whether to increase or lower the alert level or if the danger zone should be extended or reduced.

“Even then, my calculations will never be good enough,” Surono said.

On the other hand, when Merapi erupted a second time last year and claimed dozens of lives, Surono was criticized for not being able to persuade some villagers to leave their village.

“I admit it was my fault,” he said. “I didn’t try hard enough to force them to evacuate. I’m going to live with that for the rest of my life.”

Despite their destructive capacity, Surono said Indonesians should feel blessed to live in a country with hundreds of volcanoes.

“We have to acknowledge that we take so many things from volcanoes,” Surono said. “All of those beautiful high-rise buildings in our cities use materials from volcanoes. We take a lot and the mountains never ask anything in return.

“I don’t think it would be too much to ask for us to learn to respect and leave the mountains temporarily when they want to grow and clean themselves.”

Chile’s Hudson Volcano Forces Evacuations; Region on Red Alert

International Business Times: Chile’s Hudson Volcano Forces Evacuations; Region on Red Alert
Chile's Hudson Volcano is rumbling and the government has issued a red alert, ordering the evacuation of all residents living within 25 miles.

The red alert includes the Chilean cities of Aysen, Rio Ibanez and Chile Chinco. So far, 115 people have been evacuated and the government is working to contact 10 workers in the area near Lago Caro.

Rodrigo Ubilla, the minister of the interior, reported new volcanic activity in the area Thursday morning and declared the next 12 hours crucial in determining the extent of the emergency. Officials are preparing for an imminent major eruption.

Concerns arose after the Hudson Volcano blasted steam nearly a mile skyward on Tuesday. The eruption's seismic activity triggered an avalanche in the area, though there were no reports of injuries or damage.

Wednesday's measures come in the wake of a Preventative Early Warning issued on June 14.

The Hudson Volcano lies 995 miles south of the Chilean capital, Santiago. It last erupted in 1991, causing millions of dollars in damages to local farms, killing an estimated 1.5 million sheep. The eruption melted part of the glacier that sits on the crater and triggered massive mud flows.

Hudson experienced moderate eruptions in 1891 and 1971, followed by the "colossal" eruption in 1991. That eruption reached 5 on the 8-step Volcanic Explosivity Index and was Chile's second largest in the 20th century.

Volcanic eruptions at the 6,250-foot volcano are characterized by eruptive columns several miles high that could affect localities near the remote volcano, according to the National Office of Emergency of Chile's Interior Ministry (ONEMI).

Chile's chain of roughly 3,000 volcanoes along the Pacific "Ring of Fire" is the second largest in the world after Indonesia. Some 500 are said to be potentially active and precautionary evacuations in the nation are not uncommon.

In June, Chile's Puyehue volcano erupted after being dormant for decades, grounding flights from Buenos Aires to Sydney. The travel delays lasted for weeks and the airline industry suffered a major drop in profits.

Phillipines: Taal

Aerial photo of Taal Volcano; North is on right-hand side of photo.

From Wikipedia:
Taal Volcano is a complex volcano located on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Historical eruptions are concentrated on Volcano Island, an island near the middle of Lake Taal. The lake partially fills Taal Caldera, which was formed by powerful prehistoric eruptions between 140,000 to 5,380 BP. Viewed from Tagaytay Ridge, Taal Volcano and Lake presents one of the most picturesque and attractive views in the Philippines. It is located about 50 km (31 mi) south of the capital of the country, the city of Manila.

The volcano had several violent eruptions in the past causing loss of life in the island and the populated areas surrounding the lake, with the death toll estimated at around 5,000 to 6,000. Because of its proximity to populated areas and its eruptive history, the volcano was designated a Decade Volcano, worthy of close study to prevent future natural disasters. It is one of the active volcanoes in the Philippines and part of the Pacific ring of fire.

Geography
Taal Volcano and Lake are wholly located in the province of Batangas. The northern half of Volcano Island falls under the jurisdiction of the lake shore town of Talisay, and the southern half to San Nicolas. The other towns that encircle Taal Lake include Tanauan, Talisay, Laurel, Agoncillo, Santa Teresita, Alitagtag, Cuenca, Lipa, Balete and Mataas na Kahoy.

Permanent settlement in the island is prohibited by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology or PHIVOLCS, declaring the whole Volcano Island as a high-risk area and a Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ). Despite the warnings, poor families have settled on the island, risking their lives, earning a living by fishing and farming crops from the rich volcanic soil.

Recent activity
Although the volcano has been quiet since 1977, it has shown signs of unrest since 1991, with strong seismic activity and ground fracturing events, as well as the formation of small mud pots and mud geysers on parts of the island. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) regularly issues notices and warnings about current activity at Taal, including ongoing seismic unrest.

2011
* 5 Jul. Alert Level was lowered from 2 to 1 after 11 weeks (April 9) of increased activity.

* 1 Jun. Alert Level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (24 hrs) = 22. (2) Intensity II earthquakes in the eastern sector of volcano accompanied by rumbling sounds. Bubbling activity observed in the middle of Main Crater Lake.

* 31 May. Alert Level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (24 hrs) = 31. (1) Intensity I and (2) Intensity II earthquakes, NE & SE sector of volcano accompanied by rumbling sounds.

* 30 May. Alert Level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (24 hrs) = 115. (1) Intensity I, (9) Intensity II, (1) Intensity III, and (1) Internsity IV earthquakes, NE, SW & SE sector of volcano accompanied by rumbling sounds.

* 29 May. Alert Level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (24 hrs) = 10.

* 28 May. Alert Level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (24 hrs) = 6. Magma has been intruding towards the surface, as indicated by continuing high rates of CO2 emissions in the Main Crater Lake and sustained seismic activity. Field measurements on 24 May 2011 show lake temperatures slightly increased, pH values slightly more acidic and water levels 4 cm higher. A ground deformation survey conducted around the Volcano Island 26 April - 3 May 2011 showed that the volcano edifice inflated slightly relative to the 05-11 April 2011 survey.

* 22 May. Alert level 2. Volcanic earthquakes (25 hrs) = 5.

* 10 Apr. Alert Level 2. The main crater, Daang Kastila Trail, and Mt Tabaro are strictly off-limits to the public because sudden hazardous steam-driven explosions could occur. Breathing air with high concentration of gases can be lethal to humans, animals and can even damage vegetation, the agency warned.

2010
* 8 June. PHIVOLCS raised the volcano status to Alert Level 2 (scale is 0-5, 0 referring to No Alert status), which indicates the volcano is undergoing magmatic intrusion which could eventually lead to an eruption. PHIVOLCS reminds the general public that the Main Crater remains off-limits because hazardous steam-driven explosions may occur, along with the possible build-up of toxic gases. Areas with hot ground and steam emission such as portions of the Daang Kastila Trail are considered hazardous.

* 11–24 May. Crater lake temperature increased by 2-3°C. The composition of Main Crater Lake water has shown above normal values of Mg/Cl, SO4/Cl and Total Dissolved Solids. There has been ground steaming accompanied by hissing sounds on the northern and northeast sides of the main crater.

* 26 April. Volcanic seismicity had increased.

2009
* 20 July. National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) executive officer Glenn Rabonza warned that although there were no volcanic quakes detected at Taal since the detection of nine volcanic quakes from June 13 to July 19, and there had been no steaming activity monitored since last recorded on June 23, Phivolcs Alert stands at Level 1, warning that Taal’s main crater is off-limits to the public because steam explosions may suddenly occur or high concentrations of toxic gases may accumulate.

2008
* 28 August. PHIVOLCS notified the public and concerned authorities that the Taal seismic network recorded ten (10) volcanic earthquakes from 5:30 AM to 3 PM. Two of these quakes that occurred at 12:33 and 12:46 PM, were both felt at intensity II by residents at barangay Pira-piraso. These quakes were accompanied by rumbling sounds. The events were located northeast of the volcano island near Daang Kastila area with depths of approximately 0.6 km (12:33 PM) and 0.8 km (12:46 PM)"

Geological history
Taal Volcano is part of a chain of volcanoes along the western side of the edge of the island of Luzon, which were formed by the subduction of the Eurasian Plate underneath the Philippine Mobile Belt. Taal Lake lies within a 25–30 km caldera formed by four explosive eruptions between 500,000 and 100,000 years ago. Each of these eruptions created extensive ignimbrite deposits, reaching as far away as where Manila stands today.

Since the formation of the caldera, subsequent eruptions have created another volcanic island, within the caldera, known as Volcano Island. This island covers an area of about 23 square kilometres (8.9 sq mi), and consists of overlapping cones and craters. Forty-seven different cones and craters have been identified on the island.

Eruption history
There have been 33 recorded eruptions at Taal since 1572. The first eruption of which there is any record occurred in 1572, the year the Agustinian friars founded the town of Taal on the shores of the lake (on what is now San Nicolas, Batangas). In 1591, another mild eruption took place featured by great masses of smoke issuing forth from the crater. From 1605 to 1611, the volcano displayed such great activity that Father Torna de Abreu had a huge cross of anubing wood erected on the brink of the crater.


The dormant Binintiang Malaki (Big Leg) Crater is the center of the 1707 & 1715 eruption.

Between 1707 and 1731, the center of activity shifted from the Main Crater to other parts of Volcano Island. The eruptions of 1707 and 1715 occurred in Binitiang Malaki crater (the cinder cone visible from Tagaytay). Minor eruptions also emanated from the Binintiang Munti crater on the westernmost tip of the island in 1709 and 1729. A more violent activity happened on September 24, 1716, when the whole southeastern portion of the crater (Calauit), opposite Mount Macolod, was blown out. The 1731 eruption off Pira-Piraso or eastern tip of the island created an island. No studies had been done to determine whether Napayon or Bubuin Island was formed in the eruption, or just a pumice raft.

Activity returned to the Main Crater in 1749, and it was remembered for being particularly violent (VEI = 4). Then came the great 200-day eruption of 1754, the greatest eruption of Taal which is described below.

Taal remained quiet for 54 years except for a minor eruption in 1790, not until March 1808 did another big eruption occur. While this outbreak was not as violent as the one in 1754, the immediate vicinity were covered with ashes to a depth of 84 centimetres (33 in).

It brought great changes in the interior of the crater, according to chroniclers of that time. Before, the bottom looked very deep and seemed unfathomable, but at the bottom, a liquid mass was seen in continual ebullition. After the eruption, the crater had widened and the pond within it had been reduced to one-third and the rest of the crater floor was higher and dry enough to walk over it. The height of the crater walls has diminished and near the center of the new crater floor, a little hill that continually emitted smoke. On its sides were several wells, one of which was especially remarkable for its size.

On July 19, 1874, an eruption of gases and ashes killed all the live stock on the island. From November 12 to 15, 1878, ashes ejected by the volcano covered the entire island. Another eruption took place in 1904 as a result of which a new outlet was formed in the southeastern wall of the principal crater. The last eruption from the Main Crater was in 1911 which obliterated the crater floor creating the present lake. In 1965, a huge explosion sliced off a huge part of the island, moving activity to a new eruption center, Mount Tabaro. Eruptions have also been recorded in 1634, 1635, 1641, 1645, 1790, 1825, 1842, 1873, 1885, 1903, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1976 and 1977.Some of the major eruptions are described below:

The 1754 eruption
Taal Volcano's greatest recorded eruption occurred in 1754 which lasted from May 15 to December 1. The following is the narrative account of Fr. Buencuchillo, parish priest of Sala, and stationed at Taal at that time:

On May 15, 1754, at about 9 or 10 o'clock in the night, the volcano quite unexpectedly commenced to roar and emit, sky-high, burning flames intermixed with glowing rocks which, falling back upon the island and rolling down the slopes of the mountain, created the impression of a large river of fire. During the following days there appeared in the lake a large quantity of pumice stone which had been ejected by the volcano. Part of these eject had also reached the hamlet of Bayuyungan and completely destroyed it.

The volcano continued thus until June 2, during the night of which the eruption reached such proportions that the falling ejecta made the entire island appear to be on fire, and it was even feared that the catastrophe might involve the shores of the lake. From the said 2nd of June until September 25, the volcano never ceased to eject fire and mud of such bad character that the best ink does not cause so black a stain.

During the night of September 25, the fire emitted was quite extraordinary and accompanied by terrifying rumblings. The strangest thing was, that within the black column of smoke issuing from the volcano ever since June 2, there frequently formed thunderstorms, and it happened that the huge tempest cloud would scarcely ever disappear during two months.

At daybreak of September 26 we found ourselves forced to abandon our dwelling for fear lest the roofs come down upon us under the weight of ashes and stones which had fallen upon them during that hapless night. In fact, some weaker buildings collapsed. The depth of the layer of ashes and stones exceeded two "cuartas" (45 centimeters), and the result was that there was neither tree nor other plant which it did not ruin or crush, giving to the whole region an aspect as if a devastating conflagration had swept over it. After this the volcano calmed down considerably, though not sufficiently to offer any prospect of tranquility.

During the night of November 1, Taal resumed its former fury, ejecting fire, rocks, sand, and mud in greater quantities than ever before. On November 15, it vomited enormous boulders which rolling down the slopes of the island, fell into the lake and caused huge waves: The waves mentioned were most probably due to the earthquake rather than to the falling rocks]. The paroxysms were accompanied by swaying motions of the ground which caused all the houses of the town to totter. We had already abandoned our habitation and were living in a tower which appeared to offer greater security; but on this occasion we resolved that the entire population retire to the Sanctuary of Casaysay, only the "Administrator" and myself to remain on the spot.

At 7 in the evening of November 28 occurred a new paroxysm, during which the volcano vomited forth such masses of fire and ejecta that in my opinion, all the material ejected during so many months, if taken together, would not equal the quantity which issued at the time. The columns of fire and smoke ascended higher than ever before, increasing every moment in volume, and setting fire to the whole island, there being not the smallest portion of the latter which was not covered by the smoke and the glowing rocks and ashes. All this was accompanied by terrific lightning and thunder above, and violent shocks of earthquakes underneath. The cloud of ejecta, carried on by the wind, extended itself toward west and south with the result that we saw already some stones fall close to our shore. I, therefore, shouted to all those who were still in the town to take to flight and we all ran off in a hurry; otherwise we would have been engulfed on the spot; as the waves of the angry lake began already to flood the houses nearest to the beach.

We left the town, fleeing this living picture of Sodom, with incessant fear lest the raging waters of the lake overtake us, which were at the moment invading the main part of the town, sweeping away everything they encountered. On the outskirts of the town, I came upon a woman who was so exhausted by her burden of two little children and a bundle of clothing that she could proceed no farther. Moved by pity, I took one of the toddlers from her and carried him, and the little indio who has been wailing while in the arms of his mother, stopped short when I took him into mine and never uttered a sound while I was carrying him a good piece of the way.

Having reached a secure place on elevated ground at a distance of about half a league (2 kilometers) from the town, we halted in a hut to rest a little and take some food. From this spot the volcano could be contemplated with a little more serenity of mind. It still continued in full fury, ejecting immense masses of material. Now I also observed that the earth was in continuous, swaying motion, a fact which I had failed to notice during the excitement and fear of the flight.

Shortly afterward the volcano subsided almost suddenly; its top was clear and apparently calm. We, therefore, returned on the following day, the 29th, to the town with the intention of surveying the havoc wrought during the preceding night.

The 29th had dawned calm, but while we were still trying to persuade ourselves that the tragedy was over and the volcano had exhausted its bowels, at about 8 o'clock, we heard a crash and then I noticed that smoke was rising from the point of the island that looks towards east. The smoke spread very gradually as far as the crater of the volcano, while there were many whiffs issuing from points in the direction of another headland. I realized that the island had opened in these places and fearing that, if a crater should open below the water, an explosion might follow, much more formidable than the preceding ones, I mounted a horse and retired permanently to the Sanctuary of Caysasay.

Between 3 and 4 o'clock in the afternoon of the said 29th, it began to rain mud and ashes at Caysasay [12 miles from the volcano] and this rain lasted three days. The most terrifying circumstance was that the whole sky was shrouded in such darkness that we could not have seen the hand placed before the face, had it not been for the sinister glare of incessant lightnings. Nor could we use artificial light as this was extinguished by the wind and copious ashes which penetrated everywhere.

All was horror those three days, which appeared rather like murky nights and we did not occupy ourselves with anything but see to it that the natives swept off the roofs the large quantities of ashes and stones which kept on accumulating upon them and threatened to bring them down upon us, burying us alive beneath their weight. But fearing that even these precautions might prove unavailing, we 3 Europeans - viz. Fr. Prior, the Alcalde, and myself - the only ones who were at the time in the Convento of Caysasay, took refuge on the landing of the stairs; as the safest place, and awaited there whatever God might dispose with regard to us. To all this was added incessant thunder and lightning, and it really looked as if the world was going to pieces and its axis had been displaced.

During the night of the 30th we had not a moment of repose, as every moment we heard the loud crush of houses collapsing under of stones, mud, and ashes piled upon them, and feared that the turn of the convento and the church of Casasay would come in next. Shortly before daybreak of December 1 there was a tremendous crash as if the house were coming down on our heads: the roof of the apse of the church had caved in! Not long afterward, the roof of their kitchen gave away with a thud. Both were tile roofs.

The first of December broke somewhat clear and our eyes contemplated everywhere ruins and destruction. The layer of ashes and mud was more than 5 spans [1.10 m] thick, and it was almost a miracle that the roof of the church and convento sustained so great a weight. We caused the bulk of the material to be removed, while new continued to fall on that day and the following, on which latter the direction of the wind changed, carrying the ejecta toward Balayan. On the 3rd and 4th we had a formidable typhoon, and thereafter the volcano quieted down.

Soon afterward I resolved to visit my town of Taal; nothing was left of it except the walls of the church and convento. All the rest, the government house, the walks of the rope factory, the warehouse, everything was buried beneath a layer of stones, mud, and ashes more than 10 spans [2.20 m] thick; only here and there could be seen an upright post, the only remnant of a comfortable dwelling. I went down to the river and found it completely filled up, with a boat belonging to the alcalde and many of private persons buried in the mud.

After incredible efforts I finally succeeded in unearthing in what had once been the church and sacristy, the chests which contained the sacred vestments and vessels. Nearly all of them were demolished by the rocks and beams which had fallen upon them, and filled with foul-smelling mud that had ruined or disfigured their contents. With the aid of some natives of Bauang, I likewise recovered some property from among the ruins of the convento.

Twelve persons are known to have perished - some carried away by the waves of the lake, others crushed beneath their collapsing houses. Thus the beautiful town of Taal remains a deserted wilderness and reduced to the utmost misery, while once it was one of the richest and most flourishing places. In the villages to the west of the lake, which were the greater and better part, all the houses have either collapsed under the load of material which had been piled upon them or have disappeared completely, swept away by the waves which in these places were so violent that they dug three ditches or channels, too wide and deep to be forded, and thus rendered impassable the road which joins the town with Balayan. In other parts of the lake shore have likewise opened many cracks and occurred very extensive slides.

The worst of all is, that, the mouth of the river Pansipit having been blocked, the lake is rising and invading the towns of Lipa and Tanauan, both being on the lowest level, and inundating their buildings. All the animals of whatever kind have perished, some by being buried, others by drowning, the rest by starving, as not a green blade remained anywhere.

The same fate as Taal has befallen the towns of Lipa, Tanauan, and so much of Sala as still existed. These towns, together with Taal, lay around the lake, being situated within easy reach of it, and less than one league [4 kilometers] from the volcano. The bulk of the population left this neighborhood and settled in more distant places. Thus out of 1200 taxpayers whom Taal contained formerly, hardly 150 remain in the poorest and least respectable villages, which suffered little from the rain of ashes.

1911 eruption
One of the more devastating eruptions occurred in January, 1911. During the night of the 27th of that month, the seismographs at the Manila Observatory commenced to register frequent disturbances, which were at first of insignificant importance, but increased rapidly in frequency and intensity. The total recorded shocks on that day numbered 26. During the 28th there were recorded 217 distinct shocks, of which 135 were microseismic, while 10 were quite severe. The frequent and increasingly strong earthquakes caused much alarm at Manila, but the observatory staff was soon able to locate their epicenter in the region of Taal Volcano and assured the public that Manila was in no danger, as Taal is distant from it some 37 miles (60 km).

In Manila in the early hours of January 30, 1911, people were awakened out of their sleep by what they at first took for loud thunder. The illusion was heightened when great streaks of lightning were seen to illumine the southern sky. Those who investigated further, however, soon learned the truth. A huge, fan-shaped cloud of what looked like black smoke rose to a great height. It was crossed and crisscrossed with a brilliant electrical display, which the people of Manila at first took for lightning. This cloud finally shot up in the air, spread, then dissipated, and this marked the culmination of the eruption, at about 2:30 a. m.

On Volcano island, the destruction was complete. It seems that when the black, fan-shaped cloud spread, it created a blast downward that forced hot steam and gases down the slopes of the crater, accompanied by a shower of hot mud and sand. Many trees had the bark shredded and cut away from the surface by the hot sand and mud blast that accompanied the explosion and contributed so much to the loss of life and destruction of property. The fact that practically all the vegetation was bent downward, away from the crater, proved that there must have been a very strong blast down the outside slopes of the cone.

Very little vegetation was actually burned or even scorched. Six hours after the explosion, dust from the crater was noticeable in Manila as it settled on furniture and other polished surfaces. The solid matter ejected had a volume of between 70,000,000 and 80,000,000 cubic meters (VEI = 3). Ashes fell over an area of 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi), although the area in which actual destruction took place measured only 230 square kilometres (89 sq mi). The detonation from the explosion was heard over an area more than 600 miles (970 km) in diameter.
Death toll
The eruption claimed a reported 1,335 lives and injured 199; although it is known that more perished than the official records show. The seven barangays that existed on the island previous to the eruption were completely wiped out. Post mortem examination of the victims seemed to show that practically all had died of scalding by hot steam or hot mud, or both. The devastating effects of the blast reached the west shore of the lake where a number of villages were also destroyed. Cattle to the number of 702 were killed and 543 nipa houses destroyed. Crops suffered from the deposit of ashes that fell to a depth of almost half an inch in places near the shore of the lake.

Observations on the Volcano Island after the eruption
Volcano Island sank from three to ten feet as a result of the eruption. It was also found that the southern shore of Lake Taal sank in elevation from the eruption. No evidences of lava could be discovered anywhere, nor have geologists been able to trace any visible records of a lava flow having occurred at any time on the volcano back then. Another peculiarity of the geologic aspects of Taal is the fact that no sulphur has been found on the volcano. The yellow deposits and encrustations noticeable in the crater and its vicinity are iron salts, according to chemical analysis. Slight smell of sulfur was perceptible at the volcano, which came from the gases that escape from the crater.

Changes on the crater after the eruption
Great changes took place in the crater after the eruption. Before 1911, the crater floor was higher than Taal lake and had several separate openings in which were lakes of different colors. There was a green lake, a yellow lake, a red lake and some holes filled with hot water from which steam issued. Many places were covered with a shaky crust of volcanic material, full of crevices, which was always hot and on which it was rather dangerous to walk. Immediately after the explosion, the vari-colored lakes had disappeared and in their place was one large lake, about ten feet below the level of the lake surrounding the island. The crater lake gradually rose until it is on a level with the water in Taal Lake.

Opinions after the creation of the lake that the presence of the water in the crater has a tendency to cool off the material below and thus lessen the chances of an explosion or make the volcano extinct, but the preponderance of expert opinion was otherwise.(The subsequent eruption in 1965 and succeeding activities came from a new eruptive center, Mount Tabaro.)

Ten years after the eruption, no changes in the general outline of the island could be discerned at a distance. On the island, however, many changes were noted. The vegetation had increased; great stretches that were formerly barren and covered with white ashes and cinders became covered with vegetation.

Vulcan Point
One large rock, now called Vulcan Point that projects from the surface of the crater lake was the remnant of the old crater floor that is now surrounded by the 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide lake, now referred to as the Main Crater Lake. Vulcan Point is cited as the world's largest island within a lake on an island within a lake on an island, i.e., Vulcan Point within Crater Lake, on Taal Island within Lake Taal, on the island of Luzon.

1965 to 1977 eruption
The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977 with the area of activity concentrated in the vicinity of Mount Tabaro. The 1965 eruption was classified as phreatomagmatic, generated by the interaction of magma with the lake water that produced the violent explosion that cut an embayment on Volcano Island. The eruption generated "cold" base surges which traveled several kilometers across Lake Taal, devastating villages on the lake shore and, killing about a hundred people. That eruption, in particular, led to the recognition of base surge (one of the American geologists who witnessed an atomic bomb explosion as a soldier and visited the volcano shortly after the 1965 eruption, compared it to an atomic base surge) as a process in volcanic eruption, which are now called pyroclastic surges when relating to volcanoes.

The population of the island was evacuated only after the onset of the eruption. Precursory signs were not interpreted correctly until after the eruption.

The strombolian eruptions of 1968 and 1969 produced massive lava flow that eventually covered the bay created by the 1965 eruption, reaching the shore of lake Taal. The last major activities on the volcano were the phreatic eruptions of 1976 and 1977.

Eruption precursors at Taal
* Increase in frequency of volcanic quakes with occasional felt events accompanied by rumbling sounds
* On the Main Crater Lake, changes in the water temperature, level, and bubbling or boiling activity on the lake.

Before the 1965 eruption began, the lake's temperature rose to several degrees above normal. However, on some eruptions there is no reported increase in the lake's temperature. On some eruptions, the dissolution of acidic volcanic gases into the lake has resulted in the death of large numbers of fish and animals.

* Development of new or reactivation of old thermal areas like fumaroles, geysers or mudpots
* Ground inflation or ground fissuring
* Increase in temperature of ground probe holes on monitoring stations
* Strong sulfuric odor or irritating fumes similar to rotten eggs
* Fish kills and drying up of vegetation

Other possible precursors
Volcanologists measuring the concentration of radon gas in the soil on Volcano island measured an anomalous increase of the radon concentration by a factor of six in October 1994. This increase was followed 22 days later by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake on November 15, centered about 50 km south of Taal, off the coast of Luzon.

A typhoon had passed through the area a few days before the radon spike was measured, but when Typhoon Angela, one of the most powerful to strike the area in ten years, crossed Luzon on almost the same track a year later, no radon spike was measured. Therefore, typhoons were ruled out as the cause, and there is strong evidence that the radon originated in the stress accumulation preceding the earthquake.

How the Taal brouhaha started

From PhilStar.com: How the Taal brouhaha started

What do you think of a giant sign that spells Batangas on the slope of Taal Volcano a la Hollywood in California?

Even I am not for it.

But I’ve learned not to quickly pass judgment on issues. At least, not until I’ve studied the rationale behind the entire scenario.

It is with interest that I followed this most recent controversy (very minor though) concerning Batangas Gov. Vilma Santos-Recto and her governance.

First of all, it is about Vilma and what Pinoy is not interested in the Star For All Seasons? And then it also concerns a volcano and I’ve made it no secret that I am fascinated with these unpredictable creations of nature.

The Philippines is an archipelago dotted with volcanoes. But the two most famous will always be Taal and Mayon.

Mayon is majestic with its near-perfect cone. It is the most beautiful, the Shamcey Supsup of volcanoes.

But its beauty geologically speaking has no permanency. One day (it may or may not occur in our time), during a really violent eruption (heaven forbid!), its summit may just collapse. If that happens and hopefully it doesn’t there goes the pride of Bicolandia. A piece of me will die since I trace some roots to Sorsogon.

Too bad, Imelda Marcos is not in power anymore to have that rebuilt in the eventuality.

In the case of Taal, which has almost 50 cones and craters, that volcano island may change shape, as it had in past major eruptions, but that spot in the middle of the lake will always remain scenic.

Taal, the volcano and the lake, is full of mysteries. There was a theory in the past claiming that the Tagaytay Ridge is part of the volcano’s mouth and that the foot lies actually in Metro Manila. No one bothered to pursue that study anymore. But this only proves that there is so much more to learn about Taal.

That most photographed and postcard-pretty crater, called Binintiang Malaki, is actually dormant. That is where the huge Batangas sign patterned after the one on Hollywood Hills is supposed to be erected. Oops, let’s go back to that supposed to be part.

When I eventually checked on this matter and had it confirmed by no less than Gov. Vi, the very origins of this brouhaha that erupted more violently than Taal’s killer 1911 eruption turned out to be a mere spec of dust as tiny as one of those nestling on the volcano’s many slopes.

It was just a germ of an idea being tossed around that leaked out no thanks to an interview given by Batangas Vice Gov. Marc Leviste. How that came out of Leviste’s mouth is the latest addition to Taal Volcano’s numerous mysteries.

Well, in due fairness to the vice governor, he had enough gentlemanly manners to defend Gov. Vi and tried to make a clarification that she had nothing to do with the Inquirer interview he gave earlier about putting up that Batangas sign on Taal.

He had, in fact, apologized to the good governor, who unfairly got the brunt of public opinion, especially on the Internet, because well she is Vilma Santos. Understandably, she will always be an easy target since she is a famous movie actress.

So what is that Batangas sign issue all about? Gov. Vi in a private conversation confided to me that it was just part of a study. There was nothing concrete about it. And definitely, no budget yet, which will always be the go signal for every government project.

This was another classic case of so much ado about nothing.

Honestly, even I formed my own ideas in my head, but I did not immediately put this down to print for other people to read.

The controversy made me analyze the territorial issue between Batangas and Tagaytay City. Batangas owns Taal Volcano and the lake. However, it is Tagaytay that had always benefited from this panoramic view.

A tourist will always go to Tagaytay, which is more accessible and with cooler climes to boot for a better view of the volcano and the lake. That has generated so much income for Tagaytay not only in terms of tourism, but also in real estate.

It’s lonely at the top, but, hey what a view!

I can understand where the government of Batangas is coming from. The volcano belongs to them. When Taal goes on a temper tantrum that is going to be their problem. Think of disasters, evacuations, relief goods and all the possible danger to lives and properties.

And Tagaytay? The coffers of this city on a ridge will get fatter as tourists flock there to have a better and safer view of a restive Taal giving a spectacular show of fireworks.

While Batangas does the expensive and tedious mopping up operations in the aftermath of a volcanic eruption, Tagaytay will merrily be counting its income generated from tourism.

I can only hope no one ever suggests that a barrier this time a la Great Wall of China be built to block Taal’s view from Tagaytay!

The Batangueños actually have something to gripe about this geographical twist of nature. Who says that life is fair? Even topography plays favorites.

So what will the Batangas government do to further promote tourism in the province? Gov. Vi admits wanting to push Taal Volcano and the lake as a tourism project to be beneficial to her constituents. (There are ruins under its waters that could be developed into dive sites.)

Without necessarily being an ecological menace since the governor is basically an environmentalist what the Batangas government wants is to provide more jobs for Batangueños in that area.

In the process, boosting local tourism may also rid its famous lake of those fish pens. Yes, the very cause of that infamous fish kill that plagued the province not so long ago.

What swept over Batangas the past week was no fish kill, but an overkill of views and opinions regarding what is actually a non-issue.

It was a mere proposal that would have been shot in mid-air eventually after a series of serious discussion among the members of the provincial council.

In spite of the mountain of criticisms unfairly heaped her way, Vilma says that she is smiling her way through it all confident of the fact that in the hearts of the Batangueños, they are aware that their governor will always be after their best interests.

Reviewing her 14 years as a public official as a mayor first (of Lipa) and now as Batangas governor I am sure even those who ridiculed her for this “mere study” regarding Taal Volcano will agree that her record has yet to be tainted by talks of massive corruption and other charges being thrown at every other politician even in the barangay level.

And now that the air hopefully had been cleared, I can only pray that we all return to our normal activities, forget about this “mere suggestion” with regard to Taal Volcano, but in the process remember all the good deeds Gov. Vi had done for her beloved Batangas province.

Travel: Under the volcano for a red hot time

From The Province: Under the volcano for a red hot time
by Rick Cropp and Barbara Braidwood
Some of our best trips have been to visit volcanoes, the noisier and more flame-buoyant the better.

They are truly the greatest show in and on earth. But despite about 20 volcanoes erupting in the world right now, few guarantee to have a pulse by the time you arrive.

erupts sporadically but in an even more spectacular fashion. It is visible from dozens of villages all over the island. One of Rick's favourite photographs is of a gaggle of chatting teenagers in a piazza of a town, oblivious to the red hot show miles above and behind them in the dark.

Hawaii's Kilauea on the Big Island erupts almost continuously but much of it is underground. Helicopters can hover near the crater and over red hot skylights that pump heat into the cabin of the heaving chopper.

Other than a helicopter, driving the Chain of Craters Road is the other option. You can sit comfortably at the viewpoints or the more adventurous can hike in for a closer experience.

Don't miss entering a lava tube, cleared and lit just for you. Check www. nps.gov/havo/index.htm for closures and warnings before you go.

Scientists Observe Underwater Volcano Eruption

From Planet Save: Scientists Observe Underwater Volcano Eruption

Scientists who witnessed the eruption of a deep sea volcano during a 2009 expedition report that the volcano was taking place near a tear in the planetary crust that is mimicking the birth of a subduction zone.

A study of their findings was published in the journal Nature and depicts the collection of boninite, a comparatively rare and chemically distinct lava that has only been found in conjunction with the formation of our planet’s subduction zones – the process that takes place at the boundaries of tectonic plates whereby one slips under another – and only then, collected from long-dead volcanoes millions of years old.


According to Joseph Resing, an oceanographer from the University of Washington and lead author of the online article, nobody has ever collected fresh boninite and scientists have never had the opportunity to monitor its eruption either.

“Everything about the eruption itself – how fast, how intense, the ratio of lava to explosive fragments, the amount and composition of gas released – is new to us,” said co-author Kenneth Rubin, University of Hawaii geologist. “Plus, having a young, fresh occurrence of this very rare rock type to study gives us the opportunity to examine subtle chemical and mineralogical variations in a pristine specimen.”

Source: Planetsave (http://s.tt/13Av9)

Council launches volcano research center in Datun

From the Taipei Times: Council launches volcano research center in Datun

The National Science Council’s Taiwan Volcano Observatory Datun (TVO), an observation and research center to monitor volcanic activity at Datun Mountain (大屯山) in Taipei, was officially launched at the Jingshan Nature Center yesterday.

Addressing the opening ceremony, Deputy Minister of the Interior Lin Tzu-ling (林慈玲) said that although geological research reports showed that the Datun volcano group had not erupted for a very long time, observations and analyses in the past decade have shown that they could be dormant active volcanoes.

The government therefore asked the council to set up the observatory to serve as a volcanic data integration platform, combining various pieces of information collected by the Ministry of Economic Affairs’ Central Geological Survey, the Central Weather Bureau, Academia Sinica and other academic units, she said.

Lin Cheng-horng (林正洪), director of the Taiwan Volcano Observatory project and a research fellow at Academia Sinica’s Institute of Earth Sciences, said that in the initial stage the observatory would monitor earthquakes, movements of the earth’s crust, earth temperature and fumarole images, as well as analyze geochemical aspects, including volcanic gas and water from hot springs.

The observatory can simulate the range of tephra — debris spewed out during a volcanic eruption — according to location and the direction of the wind during each season, he said.

Yang Tsan-yao (楊燦堯), a professor at National Taiwan University’s Department of Geosciences, said there are various levels of indicators for volcanic eruptions, such as changes in temperature, particles in water from hot springs and gas releases, that can be observed weeks or months before an eruption, as well as movement of the earth’s crust during the days before an eruption.

Lin said that Yang’s studies on helium isotopes in the fumarole and hot spring gases from the Datun volcano group indicated that 60 percent of the gas was derived from the earth’s core, suggesting that there may be a magma chamber under northern Taiwan.

They said evidence showed that the Datun volcano group probably last erupted between 5,000 and 6,000 years ago.

National Science Council Deputy Minister Chen Cheng-hong (陳正宏) said that while most people see volcanic eruptions as terrifying, they can also be objects of beauty, such as eruptions in Hawaii.

However, understanding the phenomenon before it occurs is important to avoid disaster.

Eruptions can be roughly predicted through an analysis of integrated data and can give enough of a warning so that precautionary actions can be taken, he said.

Six personnel will man the observatory on a daily basis and if they observe irregular patterns that indicate a possible eruption, a response task force would be assembled to assess the situation, Chen said.

Lin said they plan to add additional monitoring methods to improve the data, such as electromagnetic studies and satellite images.

Unmanned drones to explore mystery of volcano plumes

Alberto Font
Dr. Javier Bonatti explains how the AscTec Pelican helicopter works during a demonstration for reporters.

From the Tico TImes: Unmanned drones to explore mystery of volcano plumes
There are unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) flying over Costa Rica. But these drones don’t drop bombs.

Researchers from the University of Costa Rica unveiled the two new aircraft on Monday. One, an airplane, is outfitted with high-tech tools to analyze the makeup of volcanic plumes that spew ash, rock and gas into the air. The other is a four-rotor helicopter that can be flown in and around volcanoes and areas struck by natural disasters to collect data.

Spewing volcano forces Spain to close island port

From the Sacramento Bee: Spewing volcano forces Spain to close island port
MADRID -- Spanish authorities say activity by an underwater volcano has led them to close access to a port on El Hierro island.

Ships have been ordered away from waters around La Restinga and aircraft have been banned from flying over the island's southern tip.

The port's 600 residents were evacuated Tuesday after volcanic activity began.

The regional government of the Canary Islands says scientists have detected airborne volcanic fragments called pyroclasts rising from the sea off La Restinga.

The government said it awaited scientific reports on the danger posed by pyroclasts, but a research vessel that was collecting samples there has been ordered to desist.

TV channel La Sexta reported Saturday that journalists also have been told to clear the area.

Iceland: Restless Katla Volcano Heightens Fears Of Possible Eruption

From Irish Weather ONline: Restless Katla Volcano Heightens Fears Of Possible Eruption

An increase overnight of seismic actvity in the vicinity of the Katla volcano in southern Iceland has heightened fears of a possible eruption.

Katla is located on the Mýrdalsjökull glacier, which is the southernmost glacier in Iceland and is almost 600 km2. It is situated to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller glacier Eyjafjallajökull, where an eruption in 2010 caused major disruptions to air traffic throughout western and northern Europe in April and May 2010. The caldera is 10 km (6 mi) diameter and is covered with 200–700 metres (660-2,300 ft) of ice.

Sixteen eruptions have been documented at Katla between 930 and 1918 at intervals of 40–80 years. It has not significantly erupted for 93 years, although there may have been small eruptions that did not break the ice cover in 1955 and 1999. The 1918 eruption resulted in extending the southern coast by 5 km due to laharic flood deposits.

In the early hours of today, 05 October, an intense swarm of earthquakes was registered in the Katla caldera; the largest of these earthquakes had a local magnitude of ~3.7. Most of the ongoing seismicity is sourced at shallow (< 5 km) depths.

Commenting before the latest (14-15 Oct., 2011) earthquake swarm, the IMO said there were no measurable signs that an eruption of Katla was imminent.

“However, given the heightened levels of seismicity”, the IMO added, “the situation might change abruptly. Monitoring teams at IMO are following the ongoing activity closely, and sensor-based networks around the volcano ensure that all seismological, geodetic, and hydrological changes are detected.”

“It is definitely showing signs of restlessness,” commented Pall Einarsson, a professor of geophysics at the University of Iceland.

According to Jón Frímann, the author of the popular Icelandic volcano and earthquake website: “Earthquake activity continues in Katla volcano as before. Most of the earthquakes are as before just small ones. Currently the earthquakes do not appear to be from dike intrusion as happened last week (5 October, 2011… After this large earthquake swarm, activity dropped considerably but it has been picking up again slowly during the week. But earthquake observation has been difficult due to frequent storms during the past two weeks that have been passing over Iceland.”

A glacial flood or jokulhlaup from the Katla volcano badly damaged a bridge leading to the closure of a busy road on Saturday, 09 July last. Iceland’s Civil Protection Agency (CPA) said flooding took place near the volcano, most likely caused by the melting of its ice cap. An aerial observation of the Mýrdalsjökull at the time reported cracks in two calderas in the southernmost part of the glacier.

In recent weeks residents of Vik (population 300 approx.), located at the foot of Katla, have participated in emergency evacuation drills in the event of a volcanic eruption and subsequent glacial floods affecting the small coastal town.

Meanwhile, an earthquake swarm has also been detected at the Askja volcano, which is situated in a remote part of the central highlands of Iceland.

Experts say an eruption is not imminent but that pressure is continuing to build beneath the volcano. Askja was virtually unknown until the tremendous eruption which started on March 29, 1875. It last erupted in 1961.

The most significant, recent earthquake (3.9 magnitude) to hit Iceland occurred at 01:16 AM on Sunday 16 October. The epicentre was located 37 km S Grindavík; 67 km SW Hafnarfjörður; and 75 km SW Reykjavík

Earthquake Swarms
Earthquake swarms are events where a local area experiences sequences of many earthquakes striking in a relatively short period of time. The length of time used to define the swarm itself varies, but the United States Geological Survey (USGS) points out that an event may last for days, weeks, or months.

Harmonic Tremors
Harmonic tremor describes a long-duration release of seismic energy, with distinct spectral (harmonic) lines, that often precedes or accompanies a volcanic eruption. More generally, a volcanic tremor is a sustained signal that may or may not possess these harmonic spectral features.

Eruption of joy after conquering volcano

From Evasham Journal: Eruption of joy after conquering volcano
A DAREDEVIL succeeded in his mission to climb an active volcano in aid of a charity which helps people with the same condition as his late mum.

Jonathan Small, of Upper Street, Defford, near Pershore, fought back tears as he completed his trek, called the Avenue of the Volcanoes, last month.

The 42-year-old’s challenge ended in an exhausting but exhilarating ice-climb up Cotopaxi in Ecuador in which he clawed his way to the summit using crampons and ice axes, scaled glaciers and traversed deep crevasses.

Because of the altitude, he was often short of breath and much of his trek took place by torchlight and without him having much sleep.

The challenge involved three years of fundraising, bringing the total to £4,000 in aid of the Raynaud’s and Scleroder-ma Association.

His mother, Pat Small, suffered from these painful and debilitating conditions for many years, resulting in a decade of kidney dialysis up to her death in 1995, aged 55.

The adventurer had planned a charity trek across Lapland last year to mark the 15th anniversary of her death, but had to cancel.

He suffered an abscess just two weeks before last year’s planned trek and then the whole thing had to be cancelled because of the volcanic ash cloud.

Then he required surgery for torn knee cartilage which took place in May, threatening to scupper his second adventure.

He said: “The expedition is rated as one of the most challenging charity treks, far more difficult than Kilimanjaro or Everest Base Camp, according to those who are seasoned trekkers.

“It was the most difficult, exhausting challenge I have ever faced. I pushed on knowing my mother had suffered more every day through her illness than I endured on the mountain.”

At times he said he was “fighting back tears” as he climbed Illinazas before he even began the final climb to Cotopaxi. After a seven-hour climb, he reached Cotopaxi’s summit, 19,347 feet high. To make a donation, visit justgiving.com/FootmanJ

Volcano Threat in Canary Islands Forces Hundreds to Evacuate

From International Business Times Traveler: Volcano Threat in Canary Islands Forces Hundreds to Evacuate
Officials on Spain's El Hierro Island in the Canaries said on Tuesday that they are evacuating some 600 residents from a small coastal town due to volcanic activity in the area.

Spain's Instituto Geografico Nacional (IGN) confirmed on Tuesday that an underwater eruption is occurring 3 miles (5km) off the southern coastline of El Hierro, the smallest of the Canary Islands, which are located in the Atlantic off the coast of Morocco.

El Hierro has experienced over 10,000 earthquakes since July 19, a sign that magma is rising towards the Earth's surface.

The volcanic eruption is Spain's first since the 1971 eruption of the Teneguia Volcano on the nearby island of La Palma.

IGN confirmed that all three of its seismic stations on El Hierro registered low frequency volcanic tremors in the south of the island at the southernmost village in the Canaries, La Restinga. Residents of the town were summoned to a football field on Tuesday where they were briefed on evacuation procedures.

"Facing a change in the seismic event that is affecting El Hierro Island, and as a preventative measure, we are carrying out the relocation of the population of La Restinga," a local government spokesman said in a statement.

Spanish Prime Minister Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero met with his cabinet for an emergency briefing on the developments Tuesday evening.

Meanwhile, regional government safety chief Juan Manuel Santana told reporters on Tuesday that raising the alert level from yellow to red - the second and third steps of a four-step system - was a preventative measure.

Initial reports of the eruption came in from crews aboard four separate ships who noticed the presence of dead fish floating on the surface on Monday. The fish had likely been killed by gas escaping from the volcano, scientists said.

The present volcanic activity is believed to be occurring at a depth of nearly 2,000 feet (600 meters) below sea level.

Scientists from ING, CSIC, and the University of Cadiz are trying to determine if the subsea volcanic vent is widening and, if so, if it is widening in the direction of El Hierro.

According to local media agency Canarias7, Government authorities have suspended ferry activities to and from island. The local English-language daily, Island Connections, reports that the Port Authority has ordered all ships to stay away from the area:

"The maritime chief for the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife Antonio Padrón has issued a recommendation that boats should not sail closer than four miles off El Hierro. Divers have also been told to suspend all activities."

El Hierro, which means iron is Spanish, was designated by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve in 2000 with 60% of its territory protected. Although over 200 years have elapsed since the last eruption, El Hierro has the largest number of volcanoes in the Canaries with over 500 open sky cones, another 300 covered by the most recent outflows, and some 70 caves and volcanic galleries, according to ElHierro.com.

El Hiero is currently the most volcanically active of the Canary Islands.

On travel til Wednesday

I'm visiting elderly relatives in Box Elder, SD who do not have internet.

Will try to sneak out now and again to an internet cafe to post, but more than likely will not be posting until Wedneday.

Threat of Volcanic Eruption Spurs Evacuation on Canary Islands

(From Sept 29, 2011)
From International Business Times: Threat of Volcanic Eruption Spurs Evacuation on Canary Islands

More than fifty residents and tourists have been evacuated from the foot of a volcano on the Canary Islands following a spate of earthquakes that sparked fears of a deadly eruption.

Local officials prepared for the emergency as early as Wednesday after rumblings beneath the Pico de Malpaso mountain raised worries of a possible eruption and flying volcanic rocks on the island of El Hierro in the Atlantic Ocean.

A resident named Herminio Barrera told Agence France Presse: "I have never felt shaking like it. I notice it especially at night. We can also hear a rumbling and sounds from deep down. I am staying calm but there are people who are more worried, particularly those with children. We are very close to the mountain. My father-in-law left yesterday."
According to Agence France Presse, local authorities are establishing an emergency shelter that can hold up to 2000 people.

A German tourist named Tuengen Maier told AFP: "We were having some wine yesterday evening when the Civil Guard told us to leave the house because we were too close to the mountain. We are just going to pick up our luggage this morning. This is too dangerous. We cannot stay."

The Canary Islands are an archipelago of more than a dozen islands that are an autonomous region of Spain. Popular with tourists, the Canaries are located about 100 kilometers west of Morocco.

The national defense ministry also said it has dispatched 31 military personnel to assist with the evacuation.

The regional government of the island stated it was in a ‘pre-alert’ state and has been stocking up on water and medical supplies.

According to reports, Alpidio Armas, chief of the local council, downplayed the scale of emergency.

"We will not have to evacuate the island," he said. "The number of tremors has increased, but most of them are in the sea."

Indeed, the Spanish National Geographic Institute said it has detected 8,000 tremors in the area since July 19, but most of them were too small to be felt. However one tremor recorded Wednesday reached 3.4 magnitude.

A spokesman for the Canary island government told media: "We have not seen this kind of movement with such frequency on El Hierro since records began [more than 100 years ago].”

She added that the last volcanic eruption on the Canaries occurred on La Palma in 1971.

Canary cruises on volcano alert

From Mirror.co.uk: Canary cruises on volcano alert

By John Honeywell on Sep 29, 11 07:39 PM in Cruise destinations

We might be enjoying an Indian summer in the UK, but many people who wanted to guarantee a sunshine break in October will have booked cruises to the Canaries. They will be keeping their fingers crossed that warnings of a potential volcanic eruption will not disrupt their plans.

Reacting to an increased level of persistent seismic activity - described as an "earthquake swarm" - Spanish officials have issued a yellow alert for the island of El Hierro, to the west of Tenerife and Gran Canaria. More than 4,000 tremors have been recorded since July and landslides, at least, are expected to affect the town of La Frontera..

The British Foreign Office advises: "The local government authorities have raised the risk level of a volcanic eruption from green to yellow and taken preventative measures in case of a volcanic disruption, deploying extra resources from the military and emergency services to the island. Local authorities are also on stand-by to effect an evacuation should this become necessary."

An imminent eruption is not expected, but the FO warns that "seismic activity of this nature is unpredictable and could result in earthquakes causing minor damage or disruption due to ash emissions."

No cruise ships call at El Hierro, but there are several bound for neighbouring islands over the next few weeks, among them Royal Caribbean's Independence of the Seas, Adventure of the Seas and Mariner of the Seas, Silver Spirit, P&O's Ventura, Queen Mary 2, Costa Deliziosa, MSC Melody, Holland America's Ryndam and Fred Olsen's Boudicca, Black Watch and Balmoral.

Although the volcano on El Hierro has been dormant since 1793, operators will be keeping a close watch in case visits to Tenerife and Gran Canaria are affected. Scientists believe a major eruption on the nearby island of La Palma could trigger a mega-tsunami which would wreak devastation throughout the Atlantic Ocean, and on America's eastern seaboard.

A spokeswoman for Royal Caribbean said: " We are currently monitoring the volcanic activity on El Hierro to ensure guests enjoy a safe and comfortable cruise. At this time, Independence of the Seas and Adventure of the Seas are still scheduled to make all of their ports of calls. The safety of our guests and crew is always our foremost concern."

Costa Rica's Rincon de la Vieja Volcano Awakens

From Inside Costa Rica: Costa Rica's Rincon de la Vieja Volcano Awakens

Dormant for more than a decade, the Rincon de la Vieja volcano surprised area residents and tourists with its a phreatic eruption last August 19 and then again on September 16 and 22.

The volcano is located in the northern sector of the country Buenos Aires de Aguas Clara de Upala, in the province of Alajuela.

Experts from the Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica OVSICORI) toured the Rincon de la Vieja Volcano to inspect activity.

The ascent to the crater took over three hours until it was confirmed what the neighbors reported, investigators finding that on Saturday, September 17, a day after the eruption of water and sediment, some fish were found dead in the river Penjamo.

Investigators this week found more evidence of material spewed by the colossus in the streams and ditches in the area.

The neighbuors report indicated that some sediment have made up t 18 kilometres upstream in the local rivers.

Also being investigated is whether the walls of the volcano have some movement.

Most phreatic eruptions are concentrated in the centre of the lagoon that borders the walls that are 75 metres high.

The eruption of November 1995 was one of the most intense. And although the current eruptions are nothing compared, area residents are taking precautions.

After a meeting with experts hey took the decision to revive the local emergency committee. For now, tourist visits to the crater have been suspended and guides are required to visit other parts of the national park.

Authorities recommend people living in the foothills of the Rincon de la Vieja be aware of the water level in the rivers.

Virginia is for... volcanoes? Well, millions of years ago

From Virginia Pilot Online.com: Virginia is for... volcanoes? Well, millions of years ago
Virginia is known for many things, from its beaches to its mountains, its farms and universities.

But volcanoes?

True enough, Virginia has a quirky if still unexplained history with volcanic activity, one of the few East Coast states that can make that claim.

While many small fractures and cracks remain as evidence that lava once flowed freely millions of years ago, two ancient and prominent examples still can be seen today: Trimble Knob, in Highland County near the West Virginia line, and Mole Hill, near Harrisonburg.

They could not look any more different. Trimble Knob is small, stubby and nearly treeless; Mole Hill is taller, sprawling and covered by thick bramble and forest.

Mennonite farms, including horse-drawn carriages on country roads, lie at the foot of Mole Hill. Sheep graze atop Trimble Knob.

Both land features are what geologists call plugs, the slowly eroding remnants of extinct volcanoes. Here, black basalt rocks indicating their fiery origins can be found amid a sea of green sedimentary stones that otherwise dominate the Shenandoah Valley landscape.

Both are relatively young volcanoes, active between 38 million and 48 million years ago, making them the babies in any state east of the Mississippi River. And both are held by private landowners, which limits their access and keeps most tourists away.

Gerald Knicely in May bought a big chunk of Mole Hill, including access to the woody summit, and hopes to soon develop trails for mountain bikers and hikers. Knicely also owns Mole Hill Bikes, a cycling shop in the town of Dayton, within earshot of the dead volcano.

"I grew up here and have always felt a really strong connection to Mole Hill," he said recently at his office. "There's a spirituality about the place, a uniqueness. It's hard to explain."

Little scientific study of the two volcanoes has been done, though that is changing.

Elizabeth Johnson, a geology professor at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, has taken a keen interest in Mole Hill, which she can almost see from her campus office. She regularly shuttles her students there for field trips and research projects and has a friendly rapport with Knicely.

This summer, for example, several JMU students completed projects aimed at better understanding what lies beneath the ancient volcanoes. Using rock samples and mathematical models, the students determined the depths of the Earth's mantle below Mole Hill and how hot it must be down there.

The answers, they estimate, are 24.2 miles deep and 2,192 degrees Fahrenheit. Generally speaking, Johnson said, those numbers gradually get smaller toward the coast.

"It's the first time we've started to look closely at this site," Johnson said recently in her lab, where she was showing off thin slices of volcanic rock under a microscope while wearing a JMU Geology T-shirt. "I'd love to spend more time working on this. It's new, and the kids love to get out and see it first-hand."

While Johnson has visited Trimble Knob, she has not done serious field work there but definitely wants to, noting how it is younger than Mole Hill by about 13 million years.

The recent earthquake that shook much of the East Coast also has sparked new interest in seismic activity and volcanoes. Asked if the two state volcanoes could somehow become active again and erupt, Johnson paused.

"Well, they are extinct, and there's no reason to think there's magma being created there. So I'd say there's probably no effect to worry about. But stranger things have happened."

One of the mysteries of Mole Hill and Trimble Knob is what caused volcanic eruptions there. Scientists are simply not sure.

Volcanoes typically go off because of the constant rubbing and shifting and internal pressures of tectonic plates within the Earth. When a big slippage occurs in an active area, magma can be released and volcanoes often burst forth.

But 50 million years ago was not a time of major shifting and seismic activity in Virginia, leaving scientists to wonder what triggered the events in the Shenandoah Valley.

Theories abound, but the most commonly held one was developed by the U.S. Geological Survey in a landmark 1993 study. It speculates that a combination of factors, including a regional fracturing event in the valley, might have done the trick, creating a big enough crack to allow magma to flow upward toward the surface.

Applying this theory, scientists do not think the eruptions in Highland and Rockingham counties carried on too long in geologic time, perhaps a few millions years, according to a 2006 paper by the Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy.

"It's a hot-spot type of volcano," said Jim Beard, a geologist and the curator of earth sciences at the Virginia Museum of Natural History in Martinsville, who has written about Mole Hill. "No one's really sure why they erupted, or why they stopped."

The museum does not maintain an exhibit on Virginia's volcanoes, Beard said, though it once produced a traveling exhibit that eventually found a home at Virginia Tech.

Beard noted that a vast expanse of molten rock, called the Petersburg pluton, can be found within the James River. This material did not erupt, however; it is liquid rock that hardened beneath the Earth's surface, affecting parts of six counties and stretching more than 60 miles.

Most residents near Trimble Knob and Mole Hill simply shrug when asked if they know they are living next to a volcano.

"It doesn't bother me," said Doris Folks, deputy clerk of the court in Highland County, whose office is just blocks from Trimble Knob. Locals, she said, call it "Volcano Hill," adding that she has never been to the top in her life.

"Visitors will ask about that funny-looking bump, and I'll tell them it's a volcano," said Lisa Jamison, manager of the Highland Inn in Monterey, where Trimble Knob can nearly be seen from the front porch. "But they think you're lying to them."

Students at the Monterey elementary school visit the site for science class, Jamison said, but the volcano is not mentioned in any walking tours in town or in tourist pamphlets.

Pam Lambert lives at the foot of Trimble Knob, which rises about 200 feet above surrounding farmland. She can recall an Easter Sunday church service at the summit one year that was especially inspiring.

"I've always loved it," she said. "I wish they'd open it up and sell tickets. They'd make a fortune."

The volcano is owned by Lavinia Bird, who tolerates curiosity-seekers but is not thrilled at having trespassers on her farm. She declined to talk about Trimble Knob when contacted by phone, saying she doesn't know much about it.

Someone has built a small step ladder that jumps Bird's back fence and provides access to the knob. The volcano is covered by long, lush, reddish grass that ripples in a nearly constant breeze. The top provides breathtaking views of Monterey and the Appalachian Mountains around Highland County.

Little mounds of volcanic rocks are strewn about the summit, as if spit out onto the ground, but there is no visible hole where the lava came out; the mouth has long since eroded away.

Access to Mole Hill is restricted as well, though Knicely, the owner, will let most people visit if they sign a liability waiver at his bike shop.

Two paths lead up the hill through oak and paradise trees. They split and then reconnect near the top. Spider webs must be swept away to keep moving ahead, and one gets the feeling of embarking on an Indiana Jones excursion through some dense rain forest. A deer suddenly leaps nearby, crashing through the brush.

Halfway up, a cross has been erected to mark where a previous owner, Lowell Ulrich, died while clearing a path to the volcano for a church group. His tractor flipped and trapped him beneath, killing him on Sept. 25, 2008.

History texts say locals celebrated the conclusion of the War of 1812 with a barbecue on top of Mole Hill, where an ox was roasted.

Unlike Trimble Knob, there are no spectacular views at the summit. A dense canopy of trees makes it difficult to even tell you've reached the top, some 1,900 feet above sea level.

Butterflies dance through thickets of goldenrod, and volcanic rocks are tossed randomly about on the ground, some cracked open to show their tell-tale ebony interiors.

The going is easy back down Mole Hill, the trail looking familiar.

At the bottom, tractors are plowing fields and cars wind through two-lane roads. Civilization has been found, leaving only the round shape of a dead volcano in the rear-view mirror.

Active volcanoes in the world from 21/09/2011 to 27/09/2011

From Earthquake Report: Active volcanoes in the world from 21/09/2011 to 27/09/2011

The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program and the US Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Program.

Updated every Week (mostly Wednesday), notices of volcanic activity posted on these pages are preliminary and subject to change as events are studied in more detail. This is not a comprehensive list of all of Earth's volcanoes erupting during the week, but rather a summary of activity of volcanoes that meet criteria discussed in detail in the "Criteria and Disclaimers" section. Carefully reviewed, detailed reports on various volcanoes are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network.

NEW ACTIVITY, UNREST or ACTIVITY CHANGE
HIERRO Canary Islands (Spain) 27.73°N, 18.03°W; summit elev. 1500 m
Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) reported more than 900 new seismic events at Hierro during 20-26 September, five of them felt by residents. The maximum magnitude recorded was 3.4. The total number of located events had reached more than 8,100 since the anomalous activity began on 16 July. The rates of both GPS deformation and seismic energy release had significantly increased during the previous seven days. On 23 September, the Canarian Autonomous Government raised the Alert Code to Yellow.
Hierro Information. The triangular island of Hierro is the SW-most and least studied of the Canary Islands. The massive Hierro shield volcano is truncated by a large NW-facing escarpment formed as a result of gravitational collapse of El Golfo volcano about 130,000 years ago.

The steep-sided 1500-m-high scarp towers above a low lava platform bordering 12-km-wide El Golfo Bay, and three other large submarine landslide deposits occur to the SW and SE. Three prominent rifts o21ented NW, NE, and south at 120 degree angles form prominent topographic ridges. The subaerial portion of the volcano consists of flat-lying Quaternary basaltic and trachybasaltic lava flows and tuffs capped by numerous young cinder cones and lava flows. Holocene cones and flows are found both on the outer flanks and in the El Golfo depression. Hierro contains the greatest concentration of young vents in the Canary Islands. Uncertainty surrounds the report of an historical eruption in 1793.

LEWOTOBI Flores Island (Indonesia) 8.542°S, 122.775°E; summit elev. 1703 m
CVGHM raised the Alert Level for Lewotobi Lakilaki, one of two stratovolcanoes composing Lewotobi, to 2 (on a scale of 1-4) on 22 September due to increased seismicity since 17 September and visual observations. Although no significant changes in the volcano were observed, diffuse white plumes rose 15 m above the crater. Visitors and residents were prohibited from going within a 1-km radius of Lewotobi Lakilaki.
Lewotobi Information. The Lewotobi "husband and wife" twin volcano (also known as Lewetobi) in eastern Flores Island is composed of the Lewotobi Lakilaki and Lewotobi Perempuan stratovolcanoes. Their summits are less than 2 km apart along a NW-SE line. The conical 1,584-m-high Lewotobi Lakilaki has been frequently active during the 19th and 20th centuries, while the taller and broader 1,703-m-high Lewotobi Perempuan has erupted only twice in historical time. Small lava domes have grown during the 20th century in the crescentic summit craters of both volcanoes, which are open to the N. A prominent flank cone, Iliwokar, occurs on the E flank of Lewotobi Perampuan.
Source: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM)

POPOCATEPETL México 19.023°N, 98.622°W; summit elev. 5426 m
During 21-25 September CENAPRED reported steam-and-gas emissions from Popocatépetl. An explosion on 26 September ejected incandescent fragments and produced an ash plume that rose 2.5 km above the crater. Following the explosion, a series of 11 gas-and-steam plumes containing small amounts of ash rose from the crater.
Popocatépetl Information. Popocatépetl, whose name is the Aztec word for smoking mountain, towers to 5,426 m 70 km SE of Mexico City and is North America's second-highest volcano. Frequent historical eruptions have been recorded since the beginning of the Spanish colonial era. A small eruption on 21 December 1994 ended five decades of quiescence. Since 1996 small lava domes have incrementally been constructed within the summit crater and destroyed by explosive eruptions. Intermittent small-to-moderate gas-and-ash eruptions have continued, occasionally producing ashfall in neighboring towns and villages.

ONGOING ACTIVITY
BATU TARA Komba Island (Indonesia) 7.792°S, 123.579°E; summit elev. 748 m
Based on analyses of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that during 21-24 September ash plumes from Batu Tara rose to an altitude of 2.1 km (7,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted 37-65 km W, WNW, and NW.

CLEVELAND Chuginadak Island 52.825°N, 169.944°W; summit elev. 1730 m
AVO reported that during 20-21 September no observations of elevated surface temperatures or ash emissions from Cleveland were visible in partly cloudy satellite images. Clouds obscured views on 22 September. Elevated surface temperatures were observed in satellite images during 23-24 September, suggesting that the lava dome eruption was continuing. On 25 September AVO noted that elevated surface temperatures were not observed in several clear views of the volcano by satellite during the previous 24-hour period. Cloud cover prevented observations on 26 September.

DUKONO Halmahera 1.68°N, 127.88°E; summit elev. 1335 m
Based on analyses of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 27 September ash plumes from Dukono rose to an altitude of 2.1 km (7,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted 75 km NW and NE.

KARYMSKY Eastern Kamchatka (Russia) 54.05°N, 159.45°E; summit elev. 1536 m
KVERT reported that seismic activity continued at a moderate level at Karymsky during 16-23 September and indicated that possible ash plumes rose to altitudes of 5-6 km (16,400-19,700 ft) a.s.l. during 16-17 September. A thermal anomaly was detected in satellite imagery during 16, 18, and 20 September. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.

KILAUEA Hawaii (USA) 19.421°N, 155.287°W; summit elev. 1222 m
During 21-27 September, HVO reported that the lava lake circulated and periodically rose and fell in the deep pit within Kilauea's Halema'uma'u crater. Almost daily measurements indicated that the gas plume from the vent continued to deposit variable amounts of ash and occasionally fresh spatter nearby.

At the E rift zone, lava in the W lava lake in Pu'u 'O'o Crater fed a series of lava flows that traveled down the W flank of Pu'u 'O'o during 20-21 September. At about 0225 on 21 September activity in the crater and overflows to the W suddenly decreased, as lava broke through the upper E flank of Pu'u 'O'o, bypassing the crater. The new fissure fed a channelized 'a'a lava flow that advanced rapidly downslope 2.5 km SE. A second flow to the W of the first began the next day. In addition, a small pad of lava actively refilled the bottom of the drained E lava lake and small flows were barely active at the W edge of Pu'u 'O'o Crater. The channelized 'a'a lava flow reached 3.7 km long on 23 September and then stalled within the Kahauale'a Natural Area Reserve. Most of the active lava spread S and W of Pu'u Halulu (1.3 km NE of Pu'u 'O'o) during 23-27 September. Minor lava activity resumed within Pu'u 'O'o Crater with short lava flows issuing from the base of the E wall on 25 September and from the W wall base during 25-26 September. The crater floor of Pu'u 'O'o slowly subsided. Lava activity resumed within the E lake on 26 September. The floor of the crater continued to subside during 26-27 September, opening up cracks in the N crater floor.

KIZIMEN Eastern Kamchatka (Russia) 55.130°N, 160.32°E; summit elev. 2376 m
KVERT reported that during 16-23 September volcanic tremor magnitude at Kizimen continued to increase; 1,400-1,600 earthquakes were recorded daily. A thermal anomaly on the volcano was detected in satellite images. Lava on the E flank continued to flow and video images showed strong fumarolic activity. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.

PUYEHUE-CORDON CAULLE Central Chile 40.590°S, 72.117°W; summit elev. 2236 m
Based on seismicity during 21-26 September, OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN reported that the eruption from the Cordón Caulle rift zone, part of the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle volcanic complex, continued at a low level. Plumes observed by an area camera rose 3-5 km above the crater during 21-23 and 25 September and were visible in satellite images drifted 30-300 km NE, E, and SE during 21-26 September. The Alert Level remained at Red.

SAKURA-JIMA Kyushu 31.585°N, 130.657°E; summit elev. 1117 m
Based on information from JMA, the Tokyo VAAC reported that during 21-27 September explosions from Sakura-jima produced plumes that rose to altitudes of 1.5-2.7 km (5,000-9,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SE, S, and W. On 22 September a pilot observed an ash plume that rose to an altitude of 1.8 km (6,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SE.

SHIVELUCH Central Kamchatka (Russia) 56.653°N, 161.360°E; summit elev. 3283 m
KVERT reported that seismic activity at Shiveluch was moderate during 16-23 September. A thermal anomaly on the volcano was also observed in satellite imagery on 15 and 18 September. Ground-based observers noted fumarolic activity during 18-20 September. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.
Based on information from KEMSD, the Tokyo VAAC reported that on 24 September an eruption produced a plume that rose to an altitude of 6.4 km (21,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted E. Subsequent images that day showed that the ash had dissipated.

SOUFRIERE HILLS Montserrat 16.72°N, 62.18°W; summit elev. 915 m
MVO reported that during 16-23 September activity at the Soufrière Hills lava dome was at a low level. On 19 September a pyroclastic flow occurred from the W side of the lava dome. The Hazard Level remained at 3.

Volcano Watch: Big Pic

From Discovery News: Volcano Watch: Big Pic

Sept. 30, 2011 -- Many remember the six-day period in May 2010 when an explosive eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland shut down air traffic to and from Europe. It was the largest air-traffic shutdown since World War II, stranding millions of passengers not only in Europe, but across the globe.

David Pieri at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, uses an instrument called ASTER aboard NASA’s Terra satellite to measure infrared radiation from volcanic ash, with the goal of keeping airplanes safe. Pieri spoke about his work and why volcanic ash is so damaging to aircraft engines with EarthSky’s Jorge Salazar.

Why study volcanoes from space?
Volcanoes have been a threat to humanity since people first walked the Earth. And you can think back to how Pompeii was completely buried during an eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius in the year 79 A.D. – the ash, hot rock and noxious, terrible, toxic gases coming out of the Earth. These things still happen. They can be very big, like the Pinatubo eruption in 1991, which pushed ash up into the stratosphere and had global effects on air traffic and air quality, as well as the environment locally around the volcano.

Volcanoes are big, dangerous features that manifest the internal energy of the Earth at the surface. We want to know about them. In the old days, volcanologists – geologists, basically, who specialize in volcanoes – would operate from the ground, sometimes from airplanes. And then, with the advent of satellites and orbital surveillance of the Earth, of course it was natural for people to want to watch these eruptions and the result of the eruptions from orbit.

The mission that I’m on is called ASTER – for Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer. It’s a joint mission with the Japanese. We have a number of tools from orbit. We can look at these big eruptions and see things on the ground down to 15 meters (45 feet) across. Volcanoes often happen in remote areas, but we can detect them and monitor them, to understand how much material they’re putting in the atmosphere.

Basically, we look at volcanoes from space and try to combine our space observations with observations from the ground and from airplanes.

Why are volcanoes so dangerous to aircraft?
Small eruptions that put out a little bit of gas or a small amount of ash are not usually dangerous to aircraft, if there’s not an airport close to them. We get concerned when we have a large, explosive eruption.

We’re taking a Mount St. Helens, a Pinatubo, even bigger ones than that. They’re erupting at thousands of cubic meters per second with enormous volumes of material coming out of a pressurized volcano. Volcanoes are pressurized by gas – mostly carbon dioxide, water vapor, but also sulfur dioxide – that comes out at these enormous eruptions with vertical updraft rates of hundreds of meters per second.

These plumes can reach up to at least 10,000 meters, which is above 30,000 feet. Pinatubo went as high as 150,000 feet, if you can imagine that. Typically the eruption or burst occurs quickly, or it can be sustained for minutes or hours – maybe even days.

The material gets up in the air, and the atmospheric winds take it, particularly in the stratosphere at about 30,000 feet. Unfortunately, that’s the most efficient operating altitude for aircraft, between 20,000 and 40,000 feet. If you’re unlucky enough to penetrate a plume in an aircraft, you can have simultaneous, all-engine failures. This happened a couple times in 1983, with the Galunggung eruption in Indonesia. And then there was the Redoubt eruption in 1989. It’s a particularly harrowing case.

On December 15, 1989, a KLM aircraft was en route from Amsterdam to Tokyo. And in those days, it was typical to make a refueling stop in Anchorage, Alaska on that route. This airplane was descending northwest of Anchorage Airport into what looked like haze. The volcanic plume from the Redoubt volcano was predicted to be northeast of the volcano. The airport expected the plume to be away from the aircraft.

So the pilot descended into what looked like a haze layer. She got a smell of sulfur in the cockpit, and she then realized that her engines were failing. Basically four engines flamed out. She lost power, and the plane started to descend. They frantically tried to restart the engines. They had multiple engine restarts. I think they tried seven times, unsuccessfully, falling from 25,000 feet. They got one engine relit, and then the other three came online, and they got the engines restarted. They leveled out at about 12,000 feet after about a minute and a half. They leveled out just above the mountains, about 500 feet above the terrain. There were about 285 people on board. It was a very, very close call.

What made the engine stop?
There are a couple of things that go on in jet engines when ash gets sucked into them, especially with the newer engines, which operate at very high temperatures.

Ash is very finely ground-up rock. It’s very abrasive. So you get abrasion in the engine. That’s not good, especially with the newer high-temperature engines. It can interfere with the combustion process. The ash concentration can be high enough that it affects the fuel injection mechanism in the engine. So the engine stops combusting.

On top of that, ash will melt on the turbine blades. Each turbine blade is like Swiss cheese, because the engine is constantly forcing air through the turbine blades to cool them. These blades are coated with special coatings and also are drilled with holes. And the ash will come in and flash melt on the blade. Then it’ll get cooled by the cooling air and solidify. You get a ceramic glaze on the blade. And now the blade can’t cool itself.

So you have two kinds of hazards. You have the prompt hazard of the cessation of combustion in the engine – so the engine just stops. If you have high ash concentrations, that’ll happen.

But even if the engines don’t stop running, you get these turbine blades that are now clogged and can’t cool themselves. Then, say, 50 or 100 hours after the incident – and you might not even have known you’ve flown through ash, if it’s a very thin plume – you could have metal fatigue and possible failure.

What’s the solution?
Basically, as much as possible, you want to keep airplanes out of volcanic ash. The practice has been to vector aircraft around these plumes when they occur, such as from Mt. Cleveland volcano, Shishaldin volcano, Redoubt, Augustine. These are famous names to volcanologists. When these volcanoes erupt, the FAA and the National Weather Service tend to route the aircraft around the volcanic plumes and clouds.

And so that’s a pretty good solution – sort of a zero-tolerance policy.

But it doesn’t always work. What happened in Europe in 2010 when Eyjafjallajökull eruption put ash into European airspace, European airlines had nowhere to go. The ash was coming over major metropolitan areas of Europe, a major intrusion into the airspace. So they were shut down completely.

There was a big discussion at the time about what safe levels of volcanic ash really were. They couldn’t just route the planes around the ash, although, at some point, they were tentatively trying to fly with low levels of ash. There was a big discussion at that time about how you estimate the amount of ash in the air, how accurate the satellite observations were, what ash really means in terms of nuts-and-bolts aircraft operation.

Who is responsible for making this sort of decision?
The International Civil Aviation Organization and the World Meteorological Agencies have divided the world up into about 10 zones. Each zone has a Volcanic Ash Advisory Center – what’s called a VAAC – that’s responsible for that zone.

We have two in the U.S., one in Anchorage and one in Washington. In Europe, the two main ones that were involved in the Iceland incident were the London VAAC and the Toulouse, France VAAC.

Let’s face it, the average person walking around in the United States or Europe is not going to get hit with a volcanic blast. That’s almost inconceivable. But people from the U.S. or Europe might face a threat when they fly.

And so, in modern times, this hazard has been dispersed into vulnerable air space that the airlines like to use and that other commercial carriers and military carriers also use. We’re now susceptible and vulnerable in the modern society to this pervasive hazard of ash.

There are over 1,500 volcanoes around the world that are considered to be active at any time. Working with the Terra satellite, our job is to figure out ways to detect volcanic ash, track it, predict where it’s going to go and also to mitigate the effect to airplanes.